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A Month in the Life of John Calvin

Everyone has heard of Calvin the dictator of Geneva, the one who executed Servetus and ruled the people which harsh discipline, but like many popular stereotypes of famous figures, this picture is as much interpretation as fact and says as much about the reporters as about the actors. Many people have heard of Calvin the systematic theologian, the polemical writer who fought with a sharp and cruel pen, but again this image is shaped by selective and ahistorical reading. This is not the place to deal with distinguishing fact from fiction, but the objective is to present a view of the daily work of Calvin as a way to provide a perspective ¡°from below,¡± i.e., as his colleagues, parishioners, and neighbors knew John Calvin.
The time chosen is a month early in the year 1556, chiefly because the wealth of sources allows for a fuller picture than some other periods of the reformer¡¯s life. These sources include dated transcripts of Calvin¡¯s sermons, of the acts of the Company of Pastors and the Consistory and the city council, information drawn from marriage and baptismal records, Calvin¡¯s correspondence and other materials from his writings. This time was also chosen to coincide with preparations for Easter. The four celebrations of the Lord¡¯s Supper were the most important liturgical high points of the year, and Easter was arguably the most intense because it was preceded by the annual house-to-house visitation by teams of pastors and elders. In an effort to make the story more fluent without sacrificing authenticity, the chronological sequence has been maintained but the details have been limited. For example, usually there is only passing reference to the texts of sermons, or topical listings for correspondence or for actions of the consistory or the company of pastors. As each institution or feature of Calvin¡¯s daily life is presented, a brief introduction to that activity and its place in the life of Geneva and/or the wider European world will be given. Otherwise, the text follows Calvin through each day from March 1, 1556, to April 5, Easter Sunday.

Preaching and teaching formed a very large part of Calvin¡¯s life, and his sermons and lectures established a regular rhythm in his daily work. One of the major religious reforms characteristic of Protestants was an insistence on regular Biblical exposition as a part of every Sunday worship service, and weekday preaching was also introduced as frequently as possible, especially in the urban centers where the population density made that feasible. There were considerably more sermons in late medieval Latin Europe than Protestant polemic might lead one to think, but they differed from Protestant ideals in two ways: they were not essential to worship (sacramental liturgies were complete without preaching) and they did not have to be based on the Bible. So, for example, in catholic Geneva parish priests had not been expected to preach regularly, although friars were often invited to give a series of sermons in Lent or other special occasions. The first Protestants in Geneva, William Farel, Pierre Viret, and John Calvin, had changed that. By 1556 most long-term residents of the city would have become accustomed to the new system of preaching services - four times on Sundays and at least once and sometimes twice on each week day. All except one of the services would be focused on exposition of a particular book of the Bible; the exception was the catechism lesson at noon on Sundays. Reformed preachers believed that scripture itself should determine not only the content but also the order of exposition, and thus preachers worked their way through a single book, verse by verse, in the fashion known as lectio continua, continuous reading. Normally each minister would be explaining a different book, although there was apparently no specific rule and two might be preaching on the same book in different contexts or parishes.
Calvin¡¯s Geneva had three parishes, and by 1556 each parish had at least three of the four Sunday services, and two had all four. There were weekday services, Monday-Saturday, in two parishes, and services at two times (dawn and 8 a.m.) on Wednesday. This multiplication of sermons presented a considerable challenge for the seven or eight city pastors whom Calvin had organized to work in pairs, according to patterns which the Company of Pastors proposed and city council approved. For many years, Calvin¡¯s alternate had been Abel Poupin, but the latter became seriously ill in 1553 and his work load had been reduced, so other colleagues were obliged to compensate. Usually pairs of alternates preached in designated places at given times, but individuals could be shifted around; especially the newer additions to the group might move from one parish to another during the week, according to the specific needs of the day. Calvin¡¯s main assignment was in the older and larger part of the city (called ¡°Geneva Major¡± on a contemporary map) where the two parishes of St. Pierre and Magdeleine functioned in a kind of symbiosis. (These churches were in close geographic proximity on one side of the river which divided the city, and the third parish, St. Gervais, was a smaller part of Geneva – ¡°Geneva Minor¡± – on the other side of the river.) The full complement of Sunday and weekday services was available on each side of the river, but in the old city these were held sometimes in both St. Pierre and Magdeleine, more often in one or the other; on weekdays the choice depended at least in part on the size of the crowd expected to attend, since St. Pierre was much larger than Magdeleine.
On Sunday morning March 1, 1556, Calvin went as usual to St. Pierre for the service at 8 a.m. (¡°mid-morning¡± by the early modern clock). This was the second sermon in St. Pierre, because one of his colleagues had preached at 5 a.m. Calvin¡¯s text was 1 Cor. 6:9-10 (sermon #37), i.e., he picked up the exposition of First Corinthians where he had left off the previous Sunday afternoon. His practice was to take the Greek text (or Hebrew, if he was preaching on the Old Testament) into the pulpit and translate into French the number of verses he thought he could explain in approximately an hour (or slightly less). While he was in the pulpit Calvin might well have announced the banns for couples seeking to marry. The rule was that a man and woman who had promised marriage and received the approval of the council (i.e., the equivalent of a marriage license), should have the announcement of their intent to wed spoken from the pulpit three times over the course of three to six weeks, in both parishes if they came from different ones, so that anyone who knew of any impediment might bring it to the proper authorities. Since Calvin would be marrying two couples that afternoon, he could have made the third announcement of their banns in the morning service. By 1556 one of his younger colleagues had taken over the noon catechism, so Calvin¡¯s next task was preaching again at the 3 p.m. service, taking up where he had stopped in the morning, so his text was 1 Cor. 6:11-13. Before beginning the regular liturgy, however, he married the two couples: they were required to come before the service began in order to be ready for the marriage liturgy which would be celebrated at the beginning of the worship time, and the wedding party had to stay for the whole service.
This week was not Calvin¡¯s turn to preach at the daily service but on Monday March 2 he would have been at the Magdeleine at 7 a.m. to attend worship led by a colleague, his alternate. Probably a good part of the rest of the morning would be spent in preparation for his 2 p.m. lecture on Hosea, the book through which he was then working his way, verse by verse. While he preached in French, of course, Calvin lectured in Latin, which was still (and would long remain) the language of scholars – although, influenced as they were by humanism, the Latin Calvin and his fellow reformers used was much more classical Latin than that of their medieval predecessors. Contrary to what many books assume or even say, Calvin did not lecture on the Institutes of the Christian Religion. That was his many-times revised handbook to guide Christians in understanding what the Bible teaches. Calvin¡¯s lectures were lectio continua expositions of Biblical books which anyone could attend, though naturally most of his hearers were his fellow ministers and any educated residents or visitors to the city who were interested. By 1556 the latter would include a number of religious refugees, for example the theological leaders of the Italian and English-language congregations as well as the more numerous French refugees. Also by 1556 the lectures were being held in the chapel of Our Lady the New, now called the Auditoire, next to St. Pierre. This had been decommissioned at the Reformation (along with several other church buildings which were not needed in the consolidated parish organization), but had recently been re-opened for worship to provide space for refugee congregations like the Italians and English. For this purpose, the usual equipment of a Protestant church had been installed: a pulpit and benches.
What was the purpose and character of Calvin¡¯s lectures? They were intended to educate his colleagues and to serve a broader audience. It must be remembered that Protestant ideas of pastors required a somewhat different theological training than had been the norm in medieval universities, especially in terms of what and how they should preach. Like other humanists, Protestants wanted to return to the original sources. However, Protestants also insisted that scripture is the sole authority for all that is necessary for salvation, and so understanding it in order to preach to others should be the primary purpose of theological education. They wanted to know the original Biblical languages; they also wanted to understand the texts in context without the accretions of church tradition and dogma symbolized in Lombard¡¯s Sentences, the premier theological textbook of the medieval church. The Bible was the central and necessary text, but Protestants also used the church fathers like Augustine, John Chrysostom, and others as aids in understanding it; none of these human voices was infallible, but they could be helpful. Although Augustine was clearly his favorite theologian, Calvin preferred Chrysostom as an exegete, since the latter was more attentive to the text. Besides the patristic authors, Calvin regularly read various contemporaries, e.g., linguists like Erasmus for Greek and Sebastian Münster for Hebrew, and his fellow reformers as they published commentaries.
In good measure Calvin was self-taught as a theologian, using his prodigious memory to store his reading from the time he began to concentrate wholly on the Bible and theology in the early 1530¡¯s. Within a few years, he was teaching others, and like Luther, Zwingli, Bucer and others, he also began to publish the fruits of his study and teaching. His first commentaries, New Testament books vital to the Protestant understanding of the gospel, like Romans or Galatians, the Gospel of John or Hebrews, were both spoken to students and written down and polished by Calvin. Gradually it became clear that the busy pastor did not have time to do it all himself; a new system had to be found and his colleagues were eager to help him. As with his sermons, Calvin would take the Greek or Hebrew text into the pulpit of the classroom to translate it into Latin, bit by bit, commenting as he went and skipping nothing. His fellow ministers would copy down what he said as fully as possible; often several would collate their notes to prepare a text for Calvin to correct and polish before publication. By 1556 it had become too much for him even to polish the lectures; the Hosea lectures would be the first to be published still in the lecture format as he had spoken them, complete with the prayers with which he began and ended his lessons.
Before or more likely after his lecture on March 2, Calvin wrote a long letter to the Lutheran church leaders in Frankfurt about several rather delicate issues of potential friction between Lutheran and Reformed Protestants. Since he did not personally know the men to whom he wrote, Calvin excuses himself for addressing them but appeals to the concern for the church which they and he shared, and then explains two matters which he requests them to consider. One is the publication in Frankfurt by the (rather extreme) Lutheran theologian Joachim Westphal of a book against Calvin¡¯s doctrine of the Lord¡¯s Supper; since some of the Frankfurt church leaders also rejected Calvin¡¯s teaching, he offers to travel to Frankfurt to talk with them in person. The other issue he treats is the state of the Reformed congregation, as he intercedes on their behalf. Frankfurt, like most of Germany, was Lutheran, but they were willing to accept religious refugees when they were assured by some of their own leaders that these people were theologically acceptable. This was the case with a French-speaking Reformed congregation – originally from Strasbourg but coming now from exile in England. The problem was that there were internal disagreements in the Reformed congregation which Calvin feared might jeopardize their welcome and he asks the Lutheran leaders¡¯ forbearance with the faults of their refugee guests. The strife over Westphal was a theme throughout the mid-1550¡¯s, and recurs repeatedly in Calvin¡¯s correspondence. The matter of the French church in Frankfurt was a different kind of problem, which would personally occupy Calvin for many months of this year. Thus the themes of this letter reflect ways that the pastor in Geneva continued to interact with the larger European church scene in the midst of the daily duties which occupied most of his time.
Tuesday March 3 was much like Monday: attending worship, seeing to other duties and preparation for the lecture at 2 p.m. In addition part of the day was spent writing more letters to Frankfurt, this time to members of the French church itself, people whom Calvin knew personally and for whom he felt a special responsibility because this community was a part of the congregation he had served during his years in Strasbourg. The problem was internal arguments about the choice of a new minister after the recent death of one of the church¡¯s two pastors, complicated by irregularities in the election of the other surviving pastor. As the French church¡¯s senior counselor, Calvin writes to attempt to move this situation in the direction of mutual understanding and resolution as well as to offer them help in finding a replacement for their deceased minister. Along with his other specific tasks, Calvin would also have spent some times during these days visiting his dying colleague Abel Poupin, joining with fellow ministers in Geneva to pray with their friend and his family through his last hours. Something of this pastoral scene can be found in the long letter which Calvin had written in April 1549 describing the deathbed of a French refugee in Geneva, Mme de Normandie. This includes the dying woman¡¯s words of confession of faith (sense of sin and confidence in Christ¡¯s grace) and her counsel to her servant to cling to the gospel, her husband¡¯s loving encouragement to her despite his own sorrow, exhortation and comfort by the ministers present, her own recitation of the French metrical Psalm 51 and Calvin¡¯s exposition of it, and further prayers by the gathered company. Prayers and exhortations, Psalms and edifying conversation, pastors and family present with the dying man – Pastor Abel would have them all, as his colleagues gathered or took turns at his bedside during these last hours.
Wednesday March 4 was another full day for Calvin. Usually weekday services were composed of sermons and prayers, but Calvin had developed a distinctive practice (begun by Martin Bucer) into a special day of prayer held every Wednesday. This day was the high point of the weekday worship, with its own liturgy which included the congregational singing of Psalms. Services were held at two times on Wednesdays, to ensure that everyone might have an opportunity to come to worship, and more people than usual attended than on other work days. Although usually the daily service in the old city was held in the smaller church of Magdeleine, on Wednesday it was transferred to St. Pierre for the day of prayer to accommodate more people, so, on both sides of the river, at St. Pierre and St. Gervais, the special prayer liturgy took place at 5 a.m. and again at 8 a.m. The day of prayer service was focused on the church¡¯s situation in its concrete historical time and place, and had several purposes: one was repentance, one was intercession, one was thanksgiving. In keeping with the Biblical idea that various kinds of afflictions can be chastisement to turn sinners back to the right way, the day of prayer gave particular attention to the connection between asking forgiveness for sins and interceding for those who are afflicted. The long central prayer after the sermon included both more general petitions and names of specific individuals, especially the sick. If the pastors did not already know who the sick were, the dizeniers (civic officials of each district) would alert them. Because the day of prayer was so important, the Company of Pastors wanted to insure that the best preachers were in the pulpits. In 1553 when Poupin fell ill, they asked Calvin to take the service on the day of prayer every week, and the person who was serving as his alternate in place of Poupin would do the Saturday of Calvin¡¯s regular assigned week.
Thus on the morning of Wednesday March 4 as he walked to St. Pierre for the service at 8 a.m. Calvin might have been reminding himself of the names of the sick, including Pastor Abel, to be included in the day¡¯s intercessions. Although the liturgy of the day of prayer was distinctive, the sermon was usually a continuation of the book which Calvin was expounding during the week. In 1556 he had been working his way through Deuteronomy, verse by verse, for many months. On March 4, his text was Deut. 27:16-23 (sermon #151), taking up where he had left off the previous Friday. Preaching, day-by-day, must continue even as the city faced the imminent death of one of its leading pastors. Normally when he preached on a week day Calvin would not be lecturing also, but because of the change in schedule so that he could do the sermon on the day of prayer every week, there were times when he did both. Thus 2 p.m. found Calvin back in the Auditoire lecturing on Hosea – his second Biblical lesson of the day, though the audiences and languages were different. Then he would go again to Poupin¡¯s bedside.
March 5 began with Poupin¡¯s death at 7 a.m., with at least some of his colleagues – likely including Calvin – gathered around him. Before his burial the church still had its regular business to do, and so by later in the morning all the ministers and the city elders were gathered for the regular consistory meeting. The word ¡°consistory¡± immediately brings to mind the old legends about Calvin¡¯s harsh discipline and juicy stories of sexual scandals where everyone is excommunicated. Recent studies based on the wonderful transcriptions and editions which Prof. Robert Kingdon and his students have been producing, reveal a different institution. The consistory was made up of all the pastors plus twelve lay men, one of whom served as moderator.
On the basis of his study of scripture, Calvin believed that the church is distinct from the state in principle, since it is clear that this was the case for the New Testament church which is the model for all others. Distinct does not necessarily mean separate; when the state is Christian the boundaries of the two may be visibly the same and they should cooperate. However, each entity retains its own authority, which led to Calvin¡¯s famous claim for autonomy for the church – and therefore also for the exercise of church discipline. This claim was hotly contested in Geneva until 1555, when Calvin¡¯s supporters among the magistrates gained the upper hand in the government. These twelve lay members of the consistory, whom Calvin called ¡°elders,¡± had traditionally been elected from among the various ruling councils of the city, although in principle they were representatives of the whole church and within a few years someone who was not a citizen was elected, proving that the ecclesiastical community included those who were not the civil rulers. By 1556 the city council leaders were convinced of the right of the consistory to make judgments about ecclesiastical matters including suspension from the sacraments, so the cooperation between consistory and council was much smoother. About one-third of the consistory¡¯s business involved learning the facts about and reconciling quarrels within families or between neighbors. Only known conflicts would come before this body, and then only if the first effort at resolution by those immediately at hand did not succeed. As soon, however, as a quarrel affected the community, something had to be done by the authorities, and in the tightly-packed social situation of an early modern city, household quarrels rarely remained private affairs.
On this March 5, the most time-consuming business before the consistory was a continuing investigation into the behavior of Guillaume Lecointe, sire de Boiville, and a number of witnesses: servants, neighbors, and others, gave accounts of what they knew about his blasphemy and sexual improprieties. The case was not resolved until much later in the year, but at this point one of the women involved with M. de Boiville was judged to be guilty of fornication; she was suspended from taking the Lord¡¯s Supper until she manifested repentance, and remanded to the city council for punishment because her behavior was contrary to civil moral laws. A minister and an elder, Calvin and Guillaume Chicand, were charged to convey this decision to the council, and
2009-05-31 19:08:10
118.xxx.xxx.92


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